What struggles have women faced in acheiving equality of rights?
Equality for both sexes
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is a landmark international treaty that addresses the inequality experienced by women. Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, CEDAW has been ratified by 189 countries, making it one of the most widely accepted human rights treaties. The convention defines discrimination against women and sets forth a comprehensive framework for combating sexism in all aspects of life.
Despite the progress made under CEDAW, inequality persists in many areas. Challenges include the persistence of harmful gender stereotypes, the prevalence of gender-based violence, and the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities between men and women. Continued efforts are needed to ensure that the principles of CEDAW are fully implemented and that equality between the sexes becomes a reality for all.
Reproductive Rights
Reproductive rights are a fundamental human right recognized by CEDAW, which criticises the link between discrimination and women’s reproductive role. Barriers to accessing reproductive healthcare, restrictive abortion laws, and the erosion of reproductive rights protections in some countries continue to undermine women’s autonomy and well-being
A landmark case in the history of reproductive rights is Roe v. Wade, a 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision that established a woman’s constitutional right to have an abortion. However, in June 2022, the US Supreme Court overturned Roe v Wade, making abortion in the United States an issue of state law. Abortion is now fully banned in thirteen US states.
According to the Center for Reproductive Rights, 90 million women of reproductive age live in countries that do not permit abortion in any circumstances, including when the women’s health or life is at risk.
Women's Political Participation
Notable female political figures, such as Hattie Caraway, Betty Boothroyd, and Nancy Pelosi, have broken barriers and paved the way for future generations of women political leaders. Despite the progress made in recent decades, women remain underrepresented in political institutions worldwide, with only 26.1% of parliamentary seats globally held by women. Barriers to women’s political participation include discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, and the lack of financial and social support for women candidates.
Efforts to increase women’s political participation have included the adoption of quotas, programs for women candidates, and public awareness campaigns to challenge political stereotypes. To ensure that women are fully represented in political decision-making and that their voices are heard, continued action is needed. This includes the implementation of policies that will help to reduce the barriers to women’s political participation and ensure that women are able to participate in the political process on equal terms with men.
Gender-Based Violence
Gender-based violence (GBV) refers to violence targeted towards an individual because of their sex or gender, disproportionately affecting women and girls. For example, the UN’s Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs has reported that 1 in 3 women will experience physical or sexual abuse in their lifetime.
GBV encompasses a wide range of acts, including physical, sexual, and psychological violence, as well as harmful practices such as female genital mutilation and forced marriage. Covid-19 created a “shadow pandemic” in the global increase of GBV, with lockdown measures and economic stressors increasing the risk of violence against women.
The Istanbul Convention, adopted in 2011 by the Council of Europe, is a groundbreaking treaty that aims to prevent and combat violence against women and domestic violence. It establishes a comprehensive legal framework for addressing GBV, including measures to prevent violence, protect survivors, and prosecute perpetrators.
Women's Economic Empowerment
The gender pay gap is a persistent issue that reflects the economic inequality between men and women. It refers to the difference in average earnings between men and women, often expressed as a percentage of men’s earnings. Equal pay legislation, such as the Equal Pay Act 1970 in the UK, has been instrumental in addressing the gender pay gap and promoting women’s economic empowerment. These laws prohibit discrimination in pay based on sex and require employers to ensure that men and women receive equal pay for equal work or work of equal value.
Women’s economic empowerment is not only a matter of fairness and justice but also has broader social and economic benefits. Closing the gender pay gap can boost economic growth, reduce poverty, and improve the well-being of families and communities. Moreover, it can contribute to greater gender equality in society by challenging traditional gender roles and promoting women’s autonomy and decision-making power.
Women's Education
Women’s education is a fundamental human right and a critical driver of social progress. Throughout history, women have faced numerous barriers to accessing education, including discriminatory laws and practices, harmful stereotypes, and cultural norms that prioritize boys’ education over girls’. Despite progress in some areas of the world, such as the admission of women to higher education institutions in the 19th and early 20th centuries, significant challenges remain. This is evidenced by the recent concerns about women and girls being prohibited from attending school in Afghanistan under the Taliban regime.
The importance of women’s education cannot be overstated. Educated women are more likely to have healthier families, participate in the labor force, and contribute to their communities’ social and economic development. Moreover, women’s education empowers women to challenge traditional stereotypes and participate in decision-making processes that affect their lives.
Women and Armed Conflict
Armed conflict has a devastating impact on women, who often suffer from violence, displacement, and deprivation. In many conflicts, rape and sexual violence have been used as weapons of war, causing immense suffering and long-lasting trauma for survivors. Kidnapping and forced marriage are also common tactics employed by armed groups, further violating women’s rights and dignity.
In response to this, UN Security Council Resolution 1325 was adopted in 2000. This resolution recognizes the unique impact of armed conflict on women and calls for the protection of women and girls from sexual violence in armed conflict and the promotion of women’s participation in peace processes and decision-making.
Despite the adoption of Resolution 1325, women continue to be disproportionately affected by armed conflict, and their voices are often marginalized in peace processes.
Women and Migration
Migrant women face unique challenges and vulnerabilities due to their sex, nationality, and migration status. These include limited access to healthcare, education, and employment opportunities, as well as increased risk of exploitation, trafficking, and sex-based violence. Human rights law provides a framework for the protection of migrant women’s rights, however, implementation of these legal protections is often inadequate. This is due to restrictive immigration policies, lack of awareness of their rights, and the absence of gender-sensitive migration policies and programs.
Addressing the challenges faced by migrant women requires a comprehensive approach that includes the development and implementation of gender-sensitive migration policies, the provision of support services for migrant women, and the promotion of their rights and integration into host societies.
Women's Health
Women’s health is a critical aspect of gender equality and human rights, encompassing not only reproductive health but also the broader range of health issues that affect women throughout their lives. Gender-sensitive healthcare is essential for addressing the specific health needs of women, taking into account the biological, social, and cultural factors that influence women’s health and well-being.
The continued investment in reproductive health is crucial for women’s health, as it enables women to exercise control over their fertility, access safe and effective contraception, and receive appropriate care during pregnancy and childbirth. However, women’s health extends beyond reproductive health, encompassing issues such as mental health, menopause support, non-communicable diseases, and the impact of GBV on women’s health.
Addressing the specific health needs of women requires a commitment of resources and political will to ensure that women’s health is prioritized in national and international health agendas.
Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a critical framework for understanding and addressing the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination that women can experience based on factors such as race, ethnicity, sexuality, disability, and social class. It recognizes that women’s experiences of discrimination and marginalization are shaped by the complex interplay of these factors, which can create unique and compounded barriers to the realization of their rights. International instruments such as CEDAW have recognized the need to address multiple forms of discrimination against women, but the full realization of intersectional rights for all women remains a challenge.
Addressing the intersectional dimensions of women’s rights involves the development and implementation of policies and programs that are responsive to the diverse needs and experiences of women, as well as the promotion of a culture of inclusivity and respect for the rights of all women. Such an approach is essential for ensuring that the rights of all women are protected, regardless of their individual characteristics or social identities.
