The Battle of Tours (732 CE)

The Battle of Megiddo and the Battle of Marathon both took place in the ancient period. This era was defined by civilizations like the Egyptians, the Greeks, and other powerful entities like the Roman Empire.

But none of these powerful civilizations were able to last forever. The Greeks and the Egyptians were actually conquered by the Roman Empire in 146 BCE and 30 BCE respectively. As for the Roman Empire, their capital in Rome was overthrown by barbarian forces from northern Europe in 476 CE.

The fall of Rome is actually used by modern historians to mark the end of the ancient period. After that, the world entered the medieval period: a brand new chapter of history.

In a lot of ways, the medieval period was different to the ancient period. But some things never change: people still went to war.

When Rome collapsed, a number of different barbarian groups seized chunks of territory for themselves.

One of these groups was the Franks, who originated in modern day Germany. They established the kingdom of Francia, which roughly aligned with the region now known as France.

Today, the word 'barbarian' has negative connotations. It's usually associated with brutish, uncivilized tribes. But that isn't really a fair description of these groups.

Francia, for example, was a well-run state with an impressive system of agriculture and commerce. It wasn't as sophisticated as the Roman Empire, but it wasn't brutish and uncivilized either.

The Franks were ruled by a line of kings called the Merovingians. These kings were renowned for an unusual custom: they let their hair grow long and thick. Supposedly, if a rival cut off a Merovingian’s hair, he would no longer be allowed to rule.

Religion was important to the Merovingians. When their kingdom was first established, they practiced Arianism. This was technically a branch of Christianity, but generally condemned by the mainstream church, who thought it deviated too far from acceptable Christian doctrine.

Later, the Merovingians converted to mainstream Christianity. The first king to do this was called Clovis I. His conversion was pushed by his wife, Clotilda, who had been raised as a mainstream Christian herself.

The long-haired successors of Clovis I continued to practice mainstream Christianity. Over time, this faith also started to spread through the general population of Francia.

By the end of the 7th century – about two hundred years after the fall of Rome – Francia was a fully fledged Christian kingdom.

But Christianity wasn't the only religion on the rise in the medieval period. While the Merovingians were ruling in the kingdom of Francia, a brand new faith was taking shape on the distant Arabian peninsula. The name of this faith was Islam – and it wouldn't be long until its followers started to knock on Francia's door.

Islam is younger than Christianity. The religion was founded by the Prophet Muhammad in 610 CE, while Christianity was established more than five-hundred years earlier.

Muhammad was the official leader of the faith until he passed away in 632 CE. His death was followed by a struggle for succession, as three main groups all wanted to take over: the Rashiduns, the Kharijites, and the Umayyads.

In 661 CE, the Umayyads emerged victorious. And they didn't just want to be leaders of the faith. They also established a well-organized state, with a capital in the city of Damascus. This nation called itself the Umayyad Caliphate, and it flourished across the Arabian peninsula while the kingdom of Francia was still going strong in Europe.

The Umayyad Caliphate had a burning desire: they wanted to spread the religion of Islam to other parts of the world.

They started to expand the edges of their territory, spreading east into Iran and west across the north of Africa. As they conquered these regions, they united people under the banner of Islam, with mass conversions taking place in many important cities and towns.

This expansion was quick and efficient. And by 710 CE, only the Strait of Gibraltar – a sliver of sea between Morocco and Spain – separated the edge of the Umayyad empire from the shores of Christian Europe.

At that time, the region now known as Spain was home to the Visigothic Kingdom. Just like the Franks, in the neighboring Francia, the Visigoths were one of the barbarian groups who had established a kingdom after the fall of the Roman Empire. Also like the Franks, they just so happened to be followers of Christianity.

The Umayyads wanted to claim this region, and convert them to Islam instead. And as it happened, the Umayyads had arrived on the scene at quite an opportune time.

In 710 CE, the Visigoth king had just been usurped by a local rival, and the country had fallen into a state of civil war. The Umayyads crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and caught the in-fighting Visigoths by surprise. The Umayyads surged through this Christian kingdom, claiming and converting swathes of land as they went.

By 714 CE, the Visigoths had been successfully conquered. And the Umayyads arrived at the border of Francia – the kingdom of the long-haired kings.

When the Umayyads conquered the Visigothic Kingdom, in modern day Spain, it was the very first time that the Muslim faith had penetrated western Europe. It was a major moment in world history – but an even bigger moment was still to come.

From their foothold in Europe, the Umayyads now wanted to seize the kingdom of Francia.

But first, in 732 CE, they launched an attack on Aquitaine – an independent region just to the south of Francia. The leader of Aquitaine was Odo the Great, who some historians believe was ethnically Roman, a remnant of the former empire. At the time of the Umayyad invasion, Odo was close to 80 years old, but he was still a fierce military leader.

When the Umayyads attacked Aquitaine, Odo's army put up a spirited defense. But it wasn’t enough, and the battle ended with a resounding Muslim victory. The Chronicle of 754, an anonymous source written decades later, declared that 'God only knows the number of those who died or fled.'

Odo the Great was one of the few who did manage to escape. He reorganized the scattered remains of his forces, then hurried north to search for help.

He entered the kingdom of Francia, and arrived on the doorstep of a Frankish noble named Charles Martel. Charles wasn't one of the long-haired kings, but he was a powerful figure who effectively acted as a Merovingian commander in chief. Martel translates as ‘hammer’, a nickname based upon his devastating military prowess.

When Odo told Charles Martel what had happened, this powerful noble didn’t hesitate. He sent his army south to defend against the next wave of Umayyad attacks.

It seems as though the Umayyads weren't aware of Charles' strength. After their successful seizure of the Visigothic Kingdom, and the defeat of Odo at the Battle of Bordeaux, they probably underestimated the Franks – and the arrival of a powerful, well-trained army caught them by surprise.

The two armies met outside the city of Tours, just south of the border between Francia and Aquitaine. This battle wasn't just between the Franks and the Umayyads – it was also a clash between Chrisitanity and Islam.

The exact events at the Battle of Tours are shrouded in mystery. Primary sources are non-existent, and no archaeological site has ever been found. The closest thing to a reliable source is the Chronicle of 754.

According to this source, the battle lasted for 'seven days'. To begin with, the Franks formed an 'immobile [...] wall', and fended off Umayyad attacks. Then all of a sudden, the Franks exploded out from their formation, and 'annihilated the Arabs with the sword.'

The Chronicle of 754 was written 22 years after the actual battle, and there's nothing to indicate that the anonymous writer was present at the actual event. But whatever the exact events of the battle, there's one thing we know for certain. The Christian forces emerged victorious, and the Umayyads were sent retreating into Spain.

The Battle of Tours was a decisive moment in European history. For the very first time, someone had managed to halt the Umayyad advance. They continued to occupy modern day Spain, but never made it further north.

In Francia, the powerful Charles Martel was celebrated as the defender of Christianity. And his reputation started to outshine the Merovingian line of kings. In his later life, he effectively ruled as the leader of Francia – a king in all but name.

His son, Pepin the Younger, did become king, after inheriting his father's power. He ordered for the ruling Merovingian king to have his hair cut off, then sent to live in a monastery. This marked the start of a new Frankish dynasty, with the blood of Charles Martel now running through their veins. This new line of kings was known as the Carolingians.

After the death of Pepin, in 768 CE, he was succeeded by his son. This son was called Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, and he turned out to be even more influential than his grandfather, Charles Martel.

For three decades, he worked to expand the borders of the Frankish kingdom, striving to turn the European continent into a single, Christian empire. His work caught the attention of Pope Leo III. In 800 CE, he met with Charlemagne, and crowned him Holy Roman Emperor – the first person ever to hold such a title.

With the Pope’s blessing, Charlemagne ushered in a period of European stability, while promoting improvements in education, scholarship, and culture. He is sometimes referred to as the ‘Father of Europe’. Without his influence, the modern continent wouldn’t have looked the same.

But what if the Umayyads had won? There's every chance they would have continued north, uniting Europe under the flag of Islam, instead of a Holy Roman Empire.

Arabic might have become the continent’s dominant language. Towns and villages could have been dotted with mosques instead of churches. And centuries later, important events like Christopher Columbus’ voyage to America might never have taken place. His journey was funded by Catholic monarchs, and there's no way to know whether a Muslim ruler would have shown the same support.

This doesn't mean that Europe would have been worse off. Not so long after the Battle of Tours, the Islamic world enjoyed a brilliant golden age, which actually outshone a lot of the changes that Charlemagne oversaw in Europe. If the Umayyads had won at the Battle of Tours, this Islamic golden age might have blossomed in Europe too.

Hans Delbrück, a 19th century German historian, declared that 'there was no more important battle in the history of the world.'

But it's worth pointing out that Muslim historians have generally downplayed the Battle of Tours. They point instead to other events; for example, in 718 CE, the Umayyads also tried to enter Europe through Turkey, and were defeated more dramatically than they were in Francia. This moment, according to Muslim historians, was far more important than the Battle of Tours in deciding the fate of Europe.

It's an interesting argument. And maybe Tours has been overstated by Western historians. Maybe it's been overstated since the days of Charles Martel – he might have intentionally over-hyped the battle in a careful effort to present himself as the defender of Christianity.

It's impossible to know for certain. Just like the battles it so often describes, history often has two sides.