Revolutions

One more major player in the modern Middle East, which we haven't really talked about yet, is Iran.

For a large chunk of the 20th century (1941 to 1979), this country was ruled by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. He was an American ally, whose reign was marked by modernization and westernization: infrastructure was improved, education was expanded, and women's rights were advanced.

But this was also a period of political repression and widespread corruption. Many people in Iran also viewed the country's westernization as a rejection of Islamic traditions. His regime was seen as increasingly out of touch with the realities of Iran, and his efforts to silence opposition voices only made things worse.

At the start of 1963, the Shah announced a six-point reform programme called the White Revolution.

This was the biggest step towards westernization yet, with massive land reforms and electoral changes. For example, the reforms gave the vote to women, and let non-Muslims hold political office.

Some people saw this as more than just a rejection of Islam. Now, it was a direct attack. And one figure was right at the center of this opposition. A high ranking cleric and religious scholar: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

His anti-Western views came from a similar place as the Pan-Islamist movement. He also spoke of a unified state under the banner of Islam – but his immediate priority was speaking out against the Shah.

When Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini publicly spoke out against the White Revolution, in 1964, the Shah exiled him from Iran.

But Khomeini continued to influence Iranian politics. From Iraq and Turkey, he wrote extensive criticisms of the Shah's regime, which were smuggled into Iran and widely circulated. His writings resonated with many Iranians, contributing to the growing opposition against the Shah.

There was a revolutionary spirit in the country, now. And in 1978, everything came to a head. Islamic extremists set a cinema on fire, killing around 400 people. This was blamed (falsely) on the Shah – and demonstrations broke out across Iran.

In the middle of January, 1979, the Shah fled the country. Just a few days later, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returned.

Upon his return to Iran in 1979, Khomeini was greeted by millions of supporters, and was quickly named the country's Supreme Leader.

His return marked the beginning of a new era in Iran's history, as the country embarked on a radical experiment in Islamic governance.

Under Khomeini's leadership, Iran underwent significant political, social, and cultural changes, as the new regime sought to align the country's institutions with Islamic principles.

This transition from a monarchy to a theocratic republic was a deeply significant change. It marked the end of 2,500 years of continuous monarchical rule.

Under the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Iran was declared an Islamic Republic in April 1979. The establishment of the Islamic Republic was a radical experiment in Islamic governance.

The new political system was based on the concept of Velayat-e Faqih, or 'guardianship of the Islamic jurist', a principle advocated by Ayatollah Khomeini. This principle justifies the rule of the clergy over the state, marking a significant departure from the secular monarchy that had previously ruled Iran.

The Islamic Republic of Iran introduced a new constitution based on conservative Islamic principles and norms. This constitution combined elements of a parliamentary democracy with a theocracy governed by the country's highest-ranking cleric. The new constitution has shaped Iran's political landscape ever since, influencing its domestic policies and its relations with the rest of the world.

Since the Islamic Revolution, Iran's relationship with its Arab neighbors has been complex and often contentious.

Tensions have been particularly high with Saudi Arabia, with the two countries representing two distinct and oppositional branches of Islam: Shia (Iran) and Sunni (Saudi Arabia). This sectarian divide, combined with geopolitical rivalries and disagreements over regional issues, has fueled a deep-seated animosity between the two countries.

Iran's involvement in regional conflicts, such as those in Syria, Israel, and Yemen, and their support for militant groups – for example Hezbollah, the Lebanese Shia militia – has also been a major source of tension, contributing to the ongoing instability in the Middle East.

The Iran-Iraq War, which lasted from 1980 to 1988, was one of the longest and most devastating conflicts of the 20th century. The war had profound impacts on both countries, resulting in hundreds of thousands of casualties, and causing significant damage to their economies and infrastructures.

The war began when Iraq, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran in September 1980. The invasion was motivated by a variety of factors, including territorial disputes, oil competition, and fears of Shia influence from Iran now Ayatollah Khomeini was in charge.

Despite the immense human and economic costs, the war ended in a stalemate, with neither side achieving their objectives. This was a decade or so before America's invasion of Iraq.

In addition to local tensions, the relationship between Iran and the United States has also been strained since the Islamic Revolution. The revolution marked a significant shift in Iran's foreign policy, as the new regime sought to distance itself from the West and assert its independence on the global stage.

The US severed diplomatic ties with Iran in 1980, following the Iran hostage crisis, in which 52 American diplomats and citizens were held hostage for 444 days. This event marked a low point in US-Iran relations, and has had lasting impacts on the relationship between the two countries.

Despite efforts at rapprochement, tensions have persisted, fueled by disagreements over a range of issues. For example, the US and its allies have expressed concerns about its support for militant groups in the region. Another major point of contention is Iran's nuclear program.

Ironically, Iran's nuclear program was only made possible with the help of the US. But that was way back in the 1950s, before the Islamic Revolution took place.

Since then, many countries, most notably the US but Israel as well, have expressed concerns about Iran's ability to develop nuclear weapons. Iran insist that their nuclear program is only for defense, but lingering concerns have led to a series of international sanctions against the country.

The Iran nuclear deal, formally known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, was signed in 2015 in an attempt to limit Iran's nuclear capabilities in exchange for the lifting of these sanctions. The deal marked a significant breakthrough in international efforts to curb Iran's nuclear ambitions.

However, the deal was struck a major blow in 2018, after Donald Trump withdrew the US as a supporting party. He argued that the deal was too lenient on Iran, and needed to be reframed more harshly. As of 2024, no new deal has been confirmed.

We can't end this journey through the modern Middle East without talking about the Arab Spring.

This term refers to a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that began in 2010, and spread across much of North Africa and the Middle East. This wave of dissent was unprecedented in the region, challenging long-standing autocratic regimes, and shaking the foundations of political stability.

By the end, several long-standing regimes had been overthrown, including governments in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen. These changes marked a seismic shift in the political landscape of the Middle East and North Africa, demonstrating the power of popular protest and the desire for democratic reform.

The Arab Spring was ignited by a single act of desperation: in December 2010, a Tunisian street vendor named Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire in protest against police corruption and ill treatment.

Bouazizi's act resonated deeply with many Tunisians, who were grappling with similar issues of corruption and economic hardship. His death sparked widespread protests across the country, with people taking to the streets to voice their anger and demand change.

The protests in Tunisia culminated in the ousting of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in January 2011. This marked the first successful overthrow of a regime in the Arab Spring, and served as a catalyst for similar movements in other Arab countries.

In Egypt, President Hosni Mubarak was forced to resign in February 2011 after 18 days of relentless protests.

Again, the protests were sparked by a combination of economic hardship, political corruption, and a desire for greater political freedom. Mubarak's resignation marked a significant victory for the protesters, and another turning point in the Arab Spring.

In other countries, the protests were more drawn out. In Libya, for example, the protests escalated into a full-blown civil war. This ultimately resulted in the overthrow and death of Muammar Gaddafi in October 2011, but the conflict was also marked by intense violence from both sides.

The Arab Spring protests in Syria, which began in March 2011, also escalated into a full-blown civil war. The initial protests were met with brutal repression by the regime of Bashar al-Assad, leading to an escalation of violence and the emergence of various armed opposition groups.

The Syrian Civil War was violent and complex, with multiple factions, foreign intervention, and the use of chemical weapons. It ultimately resulted in a humanitarian crisis, with over 400,000 deaths, and millions of people displaced. And the protestors actually failed here – as of 2024, Assad is still in power.

In the midst of this war, ISIS built strongholds in parts of Syria, destroying the ancient Roman city of Palmyra in the process. More recently, Syria has started a reconstruction effort to return many of its war-battered towns and cities to their previous glory.

Just like so much of Middle Eastern history, foreign powers decided to get involved when the Arab Spring was underway. Their involvement ranged from diplomatic support to military intervention.

For example, NATO decided to intervene when the civil war was underway in Libya. They did this under the guise of protecting civilians, but they also wanted to overthrow the Gaddafi regime. This intervention was controversial, with critics arguing that it contributed to a period of ongoing instability in Libya.

In Syria, Russia and Iran have provided significant military support throughout the Civil War. Both countries have supported the Syrian leader, Assad, who they view as a useful ally.

In recent years, the high hopes of the early days of the Arab Spring have often given way to disillusionment and frustration, as the process of political change has proved to be complex and fraught with difficulties.

In Egypt, the initial democratic transition was short-lived, with the military seizing power again in 2013. This marked a significant setback for the democratic aspirations of the Egyptian people, and highlighted the challenges of political transition in the aftermath of revolution.

The power vacuums created by the Arab Spring have also led to the rise of extremist groups, such as ISIS, particularly in Syria and Iraq. These groups have exploited the chaos and instability to gain territory and influence, adding a new dimension to the challenges facing the region.

As of 2024, the future of the Arab world in the aftermath of the Arab Spring remains uncertain, with many countries still grappling with political, economic, and social challenges.

In Tunisia, the birthplace of the Arab Spring, a democratic transition was maintained for most of the 2010s. However, since the election of Kais Saied in 2019, democracy has been systematically dismantled in the country.

Many have claimed that the new regime in Tunisia is just as undemocratic and authoritarian as the Ben Ali regime overthrown by the Arab Spring in the first place.

In a way, all this just sums up the history of the modern Middle East: broken dreams, violent conflicts, and too much foreign intervention. Maybe, in the future, this part of the world will find peace and stability. But for the time being at least, that all feels like a long way away.